adding info about memory size for virtual functions

lectures/26_inheritance_II/README.md

@@ -206,3 +206,158 @@ int main() {
 ## 26.7 Exercise
 
 What is the output of the following [program](virtual.cpp)?
+
+## 26.8 Memory Usage of Virtual Functions
+
+Given the following [program](virtual2.cpp), what is the memory size of each class?
+
+```cpp
+#include <iostream>
+
+class Human {
+};
+
+class Student {
+        int age;
+};
+
+class CollegeStudent {
+        int age;
+        void print(){
+                std::cout << "I am a college student." << std::endl;
+        }
+};
+
+class CSStudent {
+        int age;
+        virtual void print(){
+                std::cout << "I am a CS student." << std::endl;
+        }
+};
+
+int main(){
+        std::cout << "memory size of Human class is: " << sizeof(Human) << std::endl;
+        std::cout << "memory size of Student class is: " << sizeof(Student) << std::endl;
+        std::cout << "memory size of College Student class is: " << sizeof(CollegeStudent) << std::endl;
+        std::cout << "memory size of CS Student class is: " << sizeof(CSStudent) << std::endl;
+        return 0;
+}
+```
+
+### 26.8.1 Empty Class
+
+- An empty C++ class takes one byte because the C++ standard requires that each distinct object has a unique address in memory.
+
+- If an empty class had size 0, then multiple instances of that class could end up having the same memory address, which would break basic assumptions in C++ like this:
+
+```cpp
+class Empty {};
+
+Empty a, b;
+std::cout << (&a == &b);  // This should be false!
+```
+
+- To make sure that &a != &b, the compiler gives each object at least one byte of storage, even if the class doesn’t contain any data.
+
+### 26.8.2 Class CSStudent: Total size breakdown
+
+- int age
+
+Size: 4 bytes
+
+- Virtual function (print)
+
+  - This makes the class polymorphic, so the compiler adds a vptr (virtual table pointer, also know as vtable pointer).
+
+  - On a 64-bit machine, a pointer is 8 bytes.
+
+- Padding/alignment
+
+  - The compiler aligns data to certain boundaries for performance.
+
+  - Typical alignment for a class with a pointer is 8 bytes, so the 4-byte int is padded with 4 extra bytes.
+
+### 26.8.3 Static Dispatch vs Dynamic Dispatch
+
+- When you call a non-virtual member function like print() in the CollegeStudent class, the compiler resolves the call at compile time. This is known as static dispatch or early binding.
+
+```cpp
+CollegeStudent alice;
+alice.print();
+```
+
+Here's what happens under the hood:
+
+- At compile time, the compiler sees that alice is of type CollegeStudent.
+
+- It knows the exact location of CollegeStudent::print() in the compiled binary (it's in the .text segment).
+
+- So it generates a direct call to that specific memory address. Like *call 0x123456* where *0x123456* is the address of the print() function.
+
+- This is why the object doesn’t need to store any pointer to the function — the compiler already knows which function to call!
+
+- If print() were marked virtual, like in the CSStudent class, then the call would become runtime-resolved using a vtable. Then:
+
+  - The object now gets a hidden pointer to a vtable (a lookup table of function pointers).
+
+  - When you call print(), the program:
+
+  - Looks up the function pointer in the vtable.
+
+  - Calls the function via that pointer.
+
+  - This is called dynamic dispatch or late binding.
+
+Question: What if class CSStudent is defined as this, what would be the memory size of a CSStudent object?
+
+```cpp
+class CSStudent {
+        int age;
+        virtual void print(){
+                std::cout << "I am a CS student." << std::endl;
+        }
+        virtual void print2(){
+                std::cout << "I am still a CS student." << std::endl;
+        }
+        virtual void print3(){
+                std::cout << "I am still a CS student." << std::endl;
+        }
+};
+```
+
+To understand the problem, compile this [program](virtual3.cpp), and use the tool *pahole* to examine the memory information.
+
+```console
+$ g++ -g virtual3.cpp
+$ pahole a.out
+class CSStudent {
+public:
+
+        void ~CSStudent(class CSStudent *, int);
+
+        void CSStudent(class CSStudent *, );
+
+        void CSStudent(class CSStudent *, const class CSStudent  &);
+
+        void CSStudent(class CSStudent *);
+
+        int ()(void) * *           _vptr.CSStudent;      /*     0     8 */
+        int                        age;                  /*     8     4 */
+        virtual void print(class CSStudent *);
+
+        virtual void print2(class CSStudent *);
+
+        virtual void print3(class CSStudent *);
+
+        /* vtable has 3 entries: {
+           [0] = print((null)),
+           [1] = print2((null)),
+           [2] = print3((null)),
+        } */
+        /* size: 16, cachelines: 1, members: 2 */
+        /* padding: 4 */
+        /* last cacheline: 16 bytes */
+};
+```
+
+The comment /*     0     8 */ means that the virtual table pointer starts at offset 0 of the class, and it has 8 bytes; the comment /*     8     4 */ means the variable age starts at offset 8 and it has 4 bytes.

lectures/26_inheritance_II/virtual2.cpp

@@ -0,0 +1,31 @@
+#include <iostream>
+
+class Human {
+};
+
+class Student {
+	int age;
+};
+
+class CollegeStudent {
+	int age;
+	void print(){
+		std::cout << "I am a college student." << std::endl;
+	}
+};
+
+class CSStudent {
+	int age;
+	virtual void print(){
+		std::cout << "I am a CS student." << std::endl;
+	}
+};
+
+int main(){
+	CSStudent cs;
+	std::cout << "memory size of Human class is: " << sizeof(Human) << std::endl;
+	std::cout << "memory size of Student class is: " << sizeof(Student) << std::endl;
+	std::cout << "memory size of College Student class is: " << sizeof(CollegeStudent) << std::endl;
+	std::cout << "memory size of CS Student class is: " << sizeof(CSStudent) << std::endl;
+	return 0;
+}

lectures/26_inheritance_II/virtual3.cpp

@@ -0,0 +1,37 @@
+#include <iostream>
+
+class Human {
+};
+
+class Student {
+	int age;
+};
+
+class CollegeStudent {
+	int age;
+	void print(){
+		std::cout << "I am a college student." << std::endl;
+	}
+};
+
+class CSStudent {
+	int age;
+	virtual void print(){
+		std::cout << "I am a CS student." << std::endl;
+	}
+	virtual void print2(){
+		std::cout << "I am still a CS student." << std::endl;
+	}
+	virtual void print3(){
+		std::cout << "I am still a CS student." << std::endl;
+	}
+};
+
+int main(){
+	CSStudent cs;
+	std::cout << "memory size of Human class is: " << sizeof(Human) << std::endl;
+	std::cout << "memory size of Student class is: " << sizeof(Student) << std::endl;
+	std::cout << "memory size of College Student class is: " << sizeof(CollegeStudent) << std::endl;
+	std::cout << "memory size of CS Student class is: " << sizeof(CSStudent) << std::endl;
+	return 0;
+}