# Announcements

# Lecture 14 --- Operators & Friends

- Operators as non-member functions, as member functions, and as friend functions.

## 14.1 Complex Numbers — A Brief Review

- Complex numbers take the form z = a + bi, where i = &radic;−1 and a and b are real. a is called the real part, b is called the imaginary part.
- If w = c + di, then  
  – w + z = (a + c) + (b + d)i,  
  – w − z = (a − c) + (b − d)i, and  
  – w × z = (ac − bd) + (ad + bc)i 
- The magnitude of a complex number is &radic;a<sup>2</sup> + b<sup>2</sup>;

## 14.2 Complex Class declaration ([complex.h](complex.h))

```cpp
class Complex {
public:
	Complex(double x=0, double y=0) : real_(x), imag_(y) {} // default constructor
	Complex(Complex const& old) : real_(old.real_), imag_(old.imag_) {} // copy constructor
	Complex& operator= (Complex const& rhs); // Assignment operator
	double Real() const { return real_; }
	void SetReal(double x) { real_ = x; }
	double Imaginary() const { return imag_; }
	void SetImaginary(double y) { imag_ = y; }
	double Magnitude() const { return sqrt(real_*real_ + imag_*imag_); }
	Complex operator+ (Complex const& rhs) const;
	Complex operator- () const; // unary operator- negates a complex number
	friend istream& operator>> (istream& istr, Complex& c);
private:
	double real_, imag_;
};
Complex operator- (Complex const& left, Complex const& right); // non-member function
ostream& operator<< (ostream& ostr, Complex const& c); // non-member function
```

## 14.3 Implementation of Complex Class ([complex.cpp](complex.cpp))

```cpp
// Assignment operator
Complex& Complex::operator= (Complex const& rhs) {
	real_ = rhs.real_;
	imag_ = rhs.imag_;
	return *this;
}
// Addition operator as a member function.
Complex Complex::operator+ (Complex const& rhs) const {
	double re = real_ + rhs.real_;
	double im = imag_ + rhs.imag_;
	return Complex(re, im);
}
// Subtraction operator as a non-member function.
Complex operator- (Complex const& lhs, Complex const& rhs) {
	return Complex(lhs.Real()-rhs.Real(), lhs.Imaginary()-rhs.Imaginary());
}
// Unary negation operator. Note that there are no arguments.
Complex Complex::operator- () const {
	return Complex(-real_, -imag_);
}
// Input stream operator as a friend function
istream& operator>> (istream & istr, Complex & c) {
	istr >> c.real_ >> c.imag_;
	return istr;
}
// Output stream operator as an ordinary non-member function
ostream& operator<< (ostream & ostr, Complex const& c) {
	if (c.Imaginary() < 0) ostr << c.Real() << " - " << -c.Imaginary() << " i ";
	else ostr << c.Real() << " + " << c.Imaginary() << " i ";
	return ostr;
}
```

## 14.4 Operators as Non-Member Functions and as Member Functions

- We have already written our own operators, especially **operator<**, to sort objects stored in STL containers.
- We can write them as non-member functions (e.g., **operator-**). When implemented as a non-member function,
the expression: **z - w** is translated by the compiler into the function call: **operator- (z, w)**
- We can also write them as member functions (e.g., **operator+**). When implemented as a member function, the
expression: **z + w is translated into: z.operator+ (w)**
This shows that **operator+ is a member function of z**, since z appears on the left-hand side of the operator.
Observe that the function has **only on**e argument!
- There are several important properties of the implementation of an operator as a member function:  
  – It is within the scope of class **Complex**, so private member variables can be accessed directly.  
  – The member variables of **z**, whose member function is actually called, are referenced by directly by name.  
  – The member variables of **w** are accessed through the parameter **rhs**.  
  – The member function is **const**, which means that z will not (and can not) be changed by the function.
- Also, since w will not be changed since the argument is also marked const.
- Both **operator+ and operator-** return **Complex** objects, so both must call **Complex constructors** to create these
objects. Calling constructors for **Complex** objects inside functions, especially member functions that work on
**Complex** objects, seems somewhat counter-intuitive at first, but it is common practice!

## 14.5 Assignment Operators

- The assignment operator: **z1 = z2**; becomes a function call: **z1.operator=(z2)**;
And cascaded assignments like: **z1 = z2 = z3**; are really: **z1 = (z2 = z3)**;
which becomes: **z1.operator= (z2.operator= (z3))**;
Studying these helps to explain how to write the assignment operator, which is usually a member function.
- The argument (the right side of the operator) is passed by constant reference. Its values are used to change
the contents of the left side of the operator, which is the object whose member function is called. A reference
to this object is returned, allowing a subsequent call to **operator= (z1’s operator=** in the example above).
The identifier this is reserved as a pointer inside class scope to the object whose member function is called.
Therefore, ***this** is a a reference to this object.
- The fact that **operator=** returns a reference allows us to write code of the form: **(z1 = z2).real();**

## 14.6 Exercise

Write an operator+= as a member function of the Complex class. To do so, you must combine what you learned
about operator= and operator+. In particular, the new operator must return a reference, *this.




## 14.7 Returning Objects vs. Returning References to Objects

- In the operator+ and operator- functions we create new Complex objects and simply return the new object.
The return types of these operators are both Complex.
Technically, we don’t return the new object (which is stored only locally and will disappear once the scope of
the function is exited). Instead we create a copy of the object and return the copy. This automatic copying
happens outside of the scope of the function, so it is safe to access outside of the function. Note: It’s important
that the copy constructor is correctly implemented! Good compilers can minimize the amount of redundant
copying without introducing semantic errors.
- When you change an existing object inside an operator and need to return that object, you must return a
reference to that object. This is why the return types of operator= and operator+= are both Complex&.
This avoids creation of a new object.
- A common error made by beginners (and some non-beginners!) is attempting to return a reference to a locally
created object! This results in someone having a pointer to stale memory. The pointer may behave correctly
for a short while... until the memory under the pointer is allocated and used by someone else.

## 14.8 Friend Classes vs. Friend Functions

- In the example below, the Foo class has designated the Bar to be a friend. This must be done in the public
area of the declaration of Foo.
```cpp
class Foo {
public:
	friend class Bar;
	...
};
```
This allows member functions in class Bar to access all of the private member functions and variables of a Foo
object as though they were public (but not vice versa). Note that Foo is giving friendship (access to its private
contents) rather than Bar claiming it. What could go wrong if we allowed friendships to be claimed?
- Alternatively, within the definition of the class, we can designate specific functions to be “friend”s, which
grants these functions access similar to that of a member function. The most common example of this is
operators, and especially stream operators.

## 14.9 Stream Operators as Friend Functions

- The operators >> and << are defined for the Complex class. These are binary operators.
The compiler translates: cout << z3 into: operator<< (cout, z3)
Consecutive calls to the << operator, such as: cout << "z3 = " << z3 << endl;
are translated into: ((cout << "z3 = ") << z3) << endl;
Each application of the operator returns an ostream object so that the next application can occur.
- If we wanted to make one of these stream operators a regular member function, it would have to be a member
function of the ostream class because this is the first argument (left operand). We cannot make it a member
function of the Complex class. This is why stream operators are never member functions.
- Stream operators are either ordinary non-member functions (if the operators can do their work through the
public class interface) or friend functions (if they need non public access).

## 14.10 Summary of Operator Overloading in C++

- Unary operators that can be overloaded: + - * & ~ ! ++ -- -> ->*
- Binary operators that can be overloaded: + - * / % ^ & | << >> += -= *= /= %= ^=
&= |= <<= >>= < <= > >= == != && || , [] () new new[] delete delete[]
- There are only a few operators that can not be overloaded: . .* ?: ::
- We can’t create new operators and we can’t change the number of arguments (except for the function call
operator, which has a variable number of arguments).
- There are three different ways to overload an operator. When there is a choice, we recommend trying to write
operators in this order:
  – Non-member function
  – Member function
  – Friend function
- The most important rule for clean class design involving operators is to NEVER change the intuitive
meaning of an operator. The whole point of operators is lost if you do. One (bad) example would be
defining the increment operator on a Complex number.

## 14.11 Extra Practice

- Implement the following operators for the Complex class (or explain why they cannot or should not be
implemented). Think about whether they should be non-member, member, or friend.

operator* operator== operator!= operator<
